The Impact of Homework on Elementary Student Achievement: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

This systematic literature review synthesizes existing research on the impact of homework on elementary school students’ academic achievement. It examines the complex relationship between homework and academic outcomes, considering subject-specific differences, the moderating roles of parental involvement and home environment, and multilevel influences including student, teacher, and school contexts. The methodology involved a systematic search of key academic databases, yielding a range of empirical studies, meta-analyses, and reviews. Key findings indicate that the direct academic benefits of homework for elementary students are often minimal and highly dependent on factors such as student age, homework quality, and the nature of tasks assigned. While some studies suggest benefits in specific subjects like mathematics under optimal conditions, the overall evidence for substantial achievement gains is limited, particularly for younger elementary students. Parental involvement emerges as a critical, yet complex, moderator; supportive involvement can be beneficial, whereas intrusive help is often detrimental. Socioeconomic status significantly influences access to resources and supportive home environments, contributing to a “homework gap”. Perceptions of homework vary considerably among students, parents, and teachers, often leading to conflict and stress. The review concludes that a “one-size-fits-all” approach to homework is inappropriate for elementary students. Instead, developmentally appropriate, high-quality homework that is purposeful and engaging, coupled with strategies to mitigate inequalities and foster positive stakeholder collaboration, is recommended. Future research should focus on longitudinal impacts, effective strategies for diverse learners, the role of digital homework, and interventions to support equitable and effective homework practices.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Homework has been a deeply entrenched and frequently debated component of elementary education for many decades (Hopkins, 2022; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017). Its practice is widespread, yet its value, particularly for young learners, remains a subject of ongoing discussion among educators, parents, students, and researchers. Proponents traditionally argue that homework reinforces classroom learning, helps develop essential study habits and life skills such as responsibility and time management, and serves as a vital association between home and school (Oxford Learning, 2023; The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Bushi et al., 2024). Educational experts argue that at-home assignments reinforce classroom learning and allow students to practice and internalize new concepts, leading to improved academic outcomes. (Bushi et al., 2024; The Editors of ProCon, 2025).

Conversely, opponents and skeptics raise concerns about the limited evidence of direct academic benefits for elementary school children, especially in the early grades (Hopkins, 2022; Cooper, Robinson & Patall, 2006). They point to potential negative consequences, including increased student stress, encroachment on valuable leisure time necessary for play and social development, and the exacerbation of educational inequalities due to disparities in home resources and parental support (Oxford Learning, 2023; Boyd, 2023). The enduring nature of this debate, despite numerous studies, suggests that the core issue is not simply whether homework “works” in a binary sense, but rather under what specific conditions, for which students, for what intended purposes, and with what types of tasks it might be beneficial or detrimental. This complexity underscores the need for a nuanced understanding that moves beyond simplistic pro-con arguments.

1.2. Significance of the Topic

Understanding the multifaceted impact of homework in elementary education is of paramount importance. The findings of such an inquiry can inform evidence-based educational policies and classroom practices, ultimately affecting the learning experiences and well-being of millions of students. Given that homework can consume a significant portion of a child’s out-of-school time and often involves considerable family resources and effort, its effective and equitable implementation is a critical concern for the education community (Hopkins, 2022).

1.3. Research Problem and Rationale

Despite a wealth of research spanning several decades, a definitive consensus on the optimal role, nature, and quantity of homework for elementary students remains elusive. The existing literature presents a complex, and at times contradictory, picture regarding homework’s direct academic benefits and the influence of various contextual factors such as student age, subject matter, parental involvement, and socioeconomic status (Cooper et al., 2006; Hopkins, 2022; Klemencic et al., 2025). This systematic literature review aims to synthesize the available evidence to provide a clearer, more comprehensive understanding of these issues, thereby addressing the persistent uncertainties in the field.

1.4. Research Questions and Objectives

This review seeks to address the following primary research questions:

1. What do existing studies reveal about the effects of homework on elementary school students’ academic achievement?
2. How do subject-specific differences (e.g., math, reading, science) influence the effectiveness of homework in elementary education?
3. What roles do parental involvement and home environment play in moderating the academic impact of homework for elementary students?

The corresponding research objectives are:

1. To synthesize existing studies on the relationship between homework and academic performance in elementary education.
2. To analyze multilevel influences (student, teacher, and school contexts).
3. To explore perceptions of teachers and parents regarding homework.
4. To highlight gaps and propose directions for future research.

1.5. Scope and Delimitations of the Review

This paper is a systematic literature review focusing on elementary school students, generally encompassing kindergarten through sixth grade (approximately ages 5-11). The review primarily considers empirical studies, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews published in academic journals and reputable reports, largely drawing from research conducted from the late 20th century to the present.

1.6. Structure of the Paper

Following this introduction, Section 2 details the methodology employed for this systematic literature review. Section 3 presents a synthesis of findings, organized thematically around the general impact of homework on achievement, subject-specific differences, the role of parental involvement and home environment, multilevel influences, and stakeholder perceptions. Section 4 discusses the interpretation of these findings, their implications, and compares them with existing theories. Section 5 outlines the limitations of this review. Finally, Section 6 provides overall conclusions and recommendations for educational practice and future research.

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Design

A systematic literature review methodology was employed to address the research questions and objectives. This approach was chosen for its capacity to provide a comprehensive, replicable, and unbiased synthesis of existing research. Systematic reviews are particularly valuable for identifying patterns, consistencies, and inconsistencies within a body of literature, thereby highlighting areas of consensus, delineating knowledge gaps, and informing future research directions and evidence-based practices.

2.2. Search Strategy

A comprehensive search strategy was implemented to identify relevant literature.

• Databases Searched: The primary databases consulted included Google Scholar, Researchgate, ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), JSTOR, Scopus, Frontiers, and Academia.edu. This selection aimed to capture a broad spectrum of academic publications, including peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, and significant research reports.
• Keywords Used: Search terms were derived from the research questions and objectives. Core keywords included: “homework and elementary achievement”, “homework effects on academic performance”, and “primary school homework impact”. These were often combined with more specific terms such as “mathematics”, “reading”, “science”, “parental involvement”, “socioeconomic status”, “teacher perceptions”, and “student well-being” to refine search results.
• Timeframe: While no strict start date was imposed, the review prioritized studies published from the late 1980s to the present, aligning with seminal works in the field and the publication dates of the majority of the analyzed sources.

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies were selected for inclusion based on the following criteria:

• Focus Population: Studies centering on elementary or primary school students (typically grades K-6 or ages 5-11).
• Study Type: Empirical studies (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods), meta-analyses, and systematic reviews.
• Relevance: Studies examining the relationship between homework and academic achievement, or related factors such as student motivation, well-being, parental involvement, teacher practices, and stakeholder perceptions concerning homework in elementary education.
• Source Type: Publications from peer-reviewed journals, reputable academic databases, or significant institutional reports. 
• Language: Primarily studies published in English.

Studies were excluded if they:

• Focused exclusively on secondary or post-secondary education.
• Were purely opinion pieces, anecdotal accounts, or editorials without empirical data or systematic review methodology (unless their purpose was to analyze perceptions).
• Were not directly relevant to the research questions.
• Were inaccessible in full text.

2.4. Study Selection Process

The study selection process involved several stages. Initially, titles and abstracts of articles identified through database searches were screened for relevance to the research questions and inclusion criteria. Potentially relevant articles proceeded to a full-text review. During the full-text review, a final determination regarding inclusion was made based on a thorough assessment against all predefined criteria.

2.5. Data Extraction and Analysis

For each included study, key information was systematically extracted. This included: study aims and research questions, research design and methodology, sample characteristics, types of homework investigated, outcome measures, key findings, and reported limitations. The extracted data were then analyzed using a narrative synthesis approach, organizing findings thematically according to the research questions and objectives of this review. The synthesis focused on identifying common patterns, areas of divergence, and significant gaps in the existing literature.

3. Literature Review and Synthesis of Findings

This section synthesizes the findings from the reviewed literature, addressing the multifaceted impact of homework on elementary student achievement and related factors.

3.1. The General Impact of Homework on Elementary Student Academic Achievement

The relationship between homework and academic achievement in elementary school students is complex and has been a subject of considerable research debate.

Overview of Research:

Some studies propose that homework can improve student achievement, reflected in grades and test results (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Cooper et al., 2006). For instance, research has indicated that students spending 31 to 90 minutes daily on homework scored significantly higher on SAT-Mathematics subtests than peers who spent no time on homework, though this finding primarily pertains to high school students (The Editors of ProCon, 2025). More broadly, some meta-analyses suggest that students in classes assigned homework outperformed a majority of students who did not have homework on standardized tests and grades (The Editors of ProCon, 2025).

Despite these positive indicators, a substantial body of research suggests that the direct connection between homework and academic achievement for elementary school students is often weak or non-existent (Cooper et al., 2006; Hopkins, 2022). The Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) (n.d.) characterizes the impact of primary school homework as modest, estimating a “+2 months” gain compared to no homework, but crucially emphasizes that the quality of the homework task is paramount.

Key Meta-Analyses and Systematic Reviews:

Several large-scale reviews have attempted to synthesize the evidence. The work by Cooper, Robinson, and Patall (2006), analyzing studies from 1987 to 2003, is frequently cited. Their findings indicated that while homework could improve students’ scores on class tests, the relationship between time spent on homework and achievement was substantial for secondary students but “hovered around no relationship at all” for elementary school students (Cooper et al., 2006; SEDL, 2008). A guide called “Helping Your Child Get the Most Out of Homework” from The National Parent Teacher Association and the National Education Association recommended that for children in grades K-2, homework should not exceed 10-20 minutes daily, and for grades 3-6, 30-60 minutes daily might be manageable (as cited in SEDL, 2008).

Another significant contribution comes from Hattie’s “Visible Learning” (2009) research, which reported a low effect size of d = 0.15 for homework in elementary school, compared to a more substantial effect size of d = 0.64 in secondary school (as cited in Bushi et al., 2024). This marked difference underscores the importance of tailoring homework tasks to the cognitive and developmental stages of students. Younger children, Hattie’s work suggests, may lack the necessary self-management and independent study skills to derive substantial academic benefit from traditional homework assignments (Bushi et al., 2024). This developmental perspective is critical, as younger students may struggle with self-regulation, sustained attention, and independent learning (Bushi et al., 2024; Blair & Razza, 2007).

This chart will visually compare elementary vs. secondary levels across the key studies:

Chart 1. Homework time and achievement effect for elementary vs. secondary students across three major studies

The chart shows:

• Elementary: Consistently low effect sizes despite moderate homework time.
• Secondary: Higher achievement effects with similar or higher homework time.

Table 1. Summary of Key Meta-Analyses and Systematic Reviews on Homework and Elementary Student Achievement

Factors Influencing the Homework-Achievement Relationship:

Several factors appear to mediate the relationship between homework and academic achievement in elementary students:

• Age/Grade Level: Younger children (Kindergarten to Grade 2) derive less, if any, academic benefit from homework compared to older elementary students (Grades 3-6) (Cooper et al., 2006; Bushi et al., 2024). This is often attributed to less developed study habits and self-regulatory skills (SEDL, 2008; Terada, 2015).
• Amount/Duration of Homework: The “10-minute rule” (approximately 10 minutes of homework per grade level per night) is a commonly cited guideline (SEDL, 2008). Excessive homework can be counterproductive (Oxford Learning, 2023; Bushi et al., 2024). Short, focused tasks are generally preferred (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Third Space Learning, 2025; Educational Neuroscience, 2025).
• Purpose of Homework: Assignments designed for skill reinforcement or practice of concepts already taught appear more beneficial than tasks introducing complex new material without support (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Bushi et al., 2024; SEDL, 2008).

Given the often minimal direct academic gains, the purpose of homework at this level should perhaps shift towards developing study habits, responsibility, and positive attitudes toward learning, without inducing undue stress (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Cooper et al., 2006; Oxford Learning, 2023).

3.2. Subject-Specific Differences in Homework Effectiveness

The impact of homework may vary by subject.

Mathematics:

Evidence for math homework is mixed. Some studies report a stronger relationship between homework and mathematics achievement (Eren & Henderson, 2011). Cooper et al. (2006) found that second-graders assigned homework performed better on math tests (SEDL, 2008). Research using causal inference machine learning suggests that daily, short-duration homework is most beneficial for math achievement in elementary students (McJames et al., 2024). However, other studies characterize the relationship as weak (Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017). Parental confidence in helping with math can be low, and intrusive help is particularly damaging to math achievement. (Hoover-Demsey et al., 2001; Park et al., 2023).

Reading and Language Arts (English):

Cooper et al. (2006) noted improvements in English skills and vocabulary for third and fourth graders with homework (SEDL, 2008). Reading with parents can positively impact literacy, with interaction quality being key (Hopkins, 2022). Perceptions of homework as boring or excessive were negatively correlated with reading achievement in a Slovenian study (Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025).

Science: 

For science, assigning homework three to four days per week with short-duration tasks is suggested as effective by some research (McJames et al., 2024). However, the same research found little to no impact from additional science homework on test scores when math homework was strong (Eren & Henderson, 2011). Teachers in Nigeria believed science homework helps learning, but have reservations about its use for formal evaluation, especially for practical skills (Abidoye & Alordiah, 2025).

Other Subjects (e.g., Social Studies):

Cooper et al. (2006) mentioned benefits for fifth-grade students in social studies. (SEDL, 2008).

Comparative Analysis:

Cooper et al. (2006) found “no strong evidence…for an association between the homework-achievement link and…the subject matter (reading as opposed to math)” overall, but grade-specific findings showed some differences (SEDL, 2008). Discrepancies suggest that subject-specific effects interact with other variables.

Table 2. Comparative Analysis of Homework Impact by Subject Area in Elementary School

3.3. The Role of Parental Involvement and Home Environment

Parental involvement and home environment are crucial moderators.

Types of Parental Involvement:

• Supporting Involvement: Creating a conducive environment, establishing routines, offering encouragement, and clarifying instructions without giving answers (Vara, 2019; Newchurch, 2017). This is generally linked to positive outcomes (Newchurch, 2017).
• Intrusive/Controlling Involvement: Doing homework for the child, providing answers, or applying excessive pressure (Park et al., 2023; Barger & Pomerantz, n.d.; Monori & Dumont, 2023). This is often linked to negative consequences like lower achievement and motivation (Park et al., 2023; Barger & Pomerantz, n.d.). Nearly two-thirds of parents may provide unconstructive assistance (Cooper et al., 2000).
• Monitoring vs. Helping: Increased parental help can be a reaction to a child’s academic difficulties (Silinskas et al., 2013).

Autonomy-supportive help is beneficial, while controlling help thwarts psychological needs for autonomy and competence (Park et al., 2023).

Impact on Academic Outcomes and Student Well-being:

Positive involvement enhances achievement and well-being (Barger & Pomerantz, n.d.). Intrusive involvement is associated with lower achievement and motivation (Park et al., 2023; Barger & Pomerantz, n.d.). Homework can be a source of family stress (Hopskin, 2022; Negru & Sava, 2023).

The Influence of Home Environment and Resources:

Regular routines and access to resources like a quiet study space and materials are critical (Vara, 2019; Newchurch, 2017; Boyd, 2023; Chang, 2012).

Socioeconomic Status (SES) and the “Homework Gap”:

SES is a powerful determinant, creating a “homework gap”. Higher-SES families often have more resources, parental availability, and parental education (Hopkins, 2022; Boyd, 2023; Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025; Mzidabi et al., 2024). Lower-SES students face challenges like crowded conditions, limited resources, and less parental availability or confidence (Boyd, 2023; Mzidabi et al., 2024). The “digital divide” exacerbates these issues (Mzidabi et al., 2024). The homework gap also encompasses differences in parental self-efficacy and cultural capital (Mzidabi et al., 2024). Students from advantaged backgrounds may not gain more from tasks themselves but face fewer barriers (Eren & Henderson, 2011).

Moderating Factors:

• Child’s Mindset: Intrusive help is particularly detrimental for children with a fixed mindset (believing intelligence is static), who may interpret it as confirmation of incompetence (Park et al., 2023). Growth mindset children (believing intelligence is malleable) may be more resilient (Park et al., 2023).
• Child’s Age: Beneficial parental involvement varies with age. For elementary students, family discussions about school and encouragement are connected to achievement (Barger & Pomerantz, n.d.).
• Parental Perceptions and Motivations: Parents aim to reinforce learning and foster good habits (Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025). However, parents, especially mothers, tend to view their involvement more positively (more supportive, less intrusive) than their children do (Moroni & Dumont, 2023). Mothers are often more involved and sometimes perceived as more intrusive (Moroni & Dumont, 2023).

Table 3. The Dual Role of Parental Involvement in Elementary Homework

3.4. Multilevel Influences on the Homework Process

Effectiveness is shaped by student, teacher, and school influences.

Student-Level Factors:

• Study Habits and Self-Regulation: Homework is purported to develop study habits, but elementary students may lack self-regulatory skills (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Cooper et al., 2006; Bushi et al., 2024; Terada, 2015). Self-regulatory processes like goal-setting and time management are linked to motivation and achievement (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Valle et al., 2024).
• Motivation and Academic Goals: Student motivation and goals influence engagement, time management, and homework completion, all related to achievement (Valle et al., 2016). A deep approach (intrinsic interest, focus on understanding) is more beneficial than a surface approach (extrinsic goals) (Valle et al., 2016).
• Attitudes and Perceptions: Negative attitudes (boring, excessive) correlate with lower achievement (Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025). Creative, relevant homework with choice is preferred (Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025; Akhtar et al., 2024).
• Well-being: Excessive or difficult homework can cause stress and anxiety (Oxford Learning, 2023; Bushi et al., 2024; Negru & Sava, 2023). Homework that fosters capability and appreciation enhances well-being (Negru & Sava, 2023).

Teacher-Level Factors:

• Homework Design and Quality: Quality is more important than quantity (Third Space Learning, 2025). Effective homework is purposeful, related to class learning, and reinforces skills (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Bushi et al., 2024; Third Space Learning, 2025; Vara, 2019). Short, focused, varied tasks are better (The Editors of ProCon, 2025; Third Space Learning, 2025; Educational Neuroscience, 2025). Differentiated homework improves engagement and attitudes (Keane & Heinz, 2019).
• Homework Frequency and Amount: Daily, short-duration math homework and 3-4 times/week science homework can be effective (McJames et al., 2024). The “10-minute rule” is often recommended (SEDL, 2008).
• Feedback Practices: Timely, specific, constructive feedback is important (Negru & Sava, 2023). Workload can limit thorough feedback (Abidoye & Alordiah, 2025).
• Teacher Perceptions and Beliefs: Teachers believe homework helps learning but have reservations about its use for format assessment (Abidoye & Alordiah, 2025; Akhtar et al., 2024). More experienced teachers may have more negative attitudes (Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017).
• Communication with Parents: Clear communication about expectations and support is essential (Newchurch, 2017).

School-Level Factors:

• Homeschool Policies: School policies provide guidelines (SEDL, 2008). Some schools have “homework cannot hurt you” policies or allow parental notes for non-completion. Policies should be research-based and flexible (SEDL, 2008).
• School Context: The socioeconomic context of the school impacts homework practices and outcomes, with low-income schools facing greater challenges. (Boyd, 2023).

3.5. Perceptions of Homework: Students, Parents, and Teachers

Perceptions are diverse and often misaligned.

Students Perspectives:

Views are often negative if homework is repetitive, long, difficult, or uninteresting (Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025; Negru & Sava, 2023). This leads to frustration and anxiety. Creative homework with choice and collaboration is preferred (Negru & Sava, 2023). Immediate, constructive feedback is appreciated (Negru & Sava, 2023). Some students see it as helpful for understanding and reviewing (Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017).

Parental Perspectives:

Views are mixed. Many see it as beneficial for reinforcement, monitoring progress, and developing habits (Oxford Learning, n.d.; Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025; Vara, 2019; Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017). Others find it unhelpful, a source of family stress, and detrimental to well-being (Hopkins, 2022; Third Space Learning, 2015). Concerns exist about the ability to help, especially with new methods (Third Space Learning, 2025; Vara, 2019). Parents of Montessori students reported slightly higher satisfaction than traditional school parents (Sullivan, n.d.).

Teacher Perspectives:

Teachers generally view homework positively for reinforcing learning and developing skills (Akhtar et al., 2024; Abidoye & Alordiah, 2025; Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017). More experienced teachers may have more critical views (Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017).

Congruence and Incongruence in Perceptions:

Lack of congruence in perceptions among stakeholders is common (Davidovitch & Yavich, 2017). Parents often perceive their involvement more positively than children do (Moroni & Dumont, 2024). Negative student perceptions can create a detrimental feedback loop (Park et al., 2023; Klemencic Mirazchiyski & Mirazchiyski, 2025). “Feels-good” homework that fosters competence can break this cycle. (Negru & Sava, 2023).

4. Discussion

4.1. Summary of Key Findings

• Effects on Academic Achievement: The direct impact of homework on elementary students’ academic achievement is often small, particularly for younger grades (Cooper et al., 2006; Hopkins, 2022; Bushi et al., 2024). Quality and purpose are more critical than quantity (Third Space Learning, 2025).
• Subject-Specific Differences: Mathematics may benefit from daily, short-duration, practice-focused homework, but is prone to issues with parental anxiety and intrusive help (McJames et al., 2024; Hoover-Demsey et al., 2001; Park et al., 2023). Reading homework can be beneficial with quality interaction (Hopkins, 2022). Science homework’s impact is less clear, especially for practical skills (Eren & Henderson, 2011; Abidoye & Alordiah, 2025).
• Role of Parental Involvement and Home Environment: Supportive, autonomy-promoting involvement is positive; intrusive help is often detrimental (Park et al., 2023; Barger & Pomerantz, n.d.). SES contributes to a “homework gap” (Hopkins, 2022; Boyd, 2023; Mzidabi et al., 2024). Child’s mindset moderates effects of parental help (Park et al., 2023).

4.2. Interpretation of Synthesized Evidence

The weak link in younger students points to developmental readiness issues (Bushi et al., 2024). Parental involvement is a three-way partnership, but intrusive help, especially with a fixed mindset, is detrimental (Park et al., 2023), necessitating parental education on autonomy-supportive assistance. The “homework gap” due to SES requires multifaceted interventions (Boyd, 2023; Mzidabi et al., 2024).

4.3. Comparison with Existing Theories and Models

Findings align with Self-Determination Theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness) regarding intrusive help and task relevance (Park et al., 2023). Reinforcement aspects align with behaviorist principles, and application of concepts with constructivist learning theory (Bushi et al., 2024). The influence of student and parental self-efficacy aligns with Badura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Mzidabi et al., 2024; Chang, 2012). Trautwein’s model of homework, emphasizing student characteristics, teacher practices, and home environment, is supported (Valle et al., 2016).

4.4. Implications of the Findings for Educational Practice 

• For Teachers: Prioritize quality, developmental appropriateness, differentiation, clear instructions, and constructive feedback (Third Space Learning, 2025; Bushi et al., 2024; Negru & Sava, 2023). Communicate effectively with parents (Newchurch, 2017).
• For Parents: Foster autonomy, provide supportive help, create a supportive environment, manage stress, and be aware of mindset (Park et al., 2023; Vara, 2019).
• For Schools and Policymakers: Develop evidence-based policies, provide teachers professional development, address equity issues, and promote student well-being (SEDL, 2008; Boyd, 2023; Negru & Sava, 2023).

5. Limitations of the Study

5.1. Limitations of the Literature Review Process

This review is subject to limitations such as database coverage, potential publication bias, language restrictions (primary English), and keyword specificity. Variation in the rigor of primary studies also impacts the synthesis.

5.2. Limitations Inherent in the Existing Research Base

Many studies are correlational, making causality difficult to establish (Cooper et al., 2006). Definitions of “homework” and “achievement” vary. Cross-sectional designs limit understanding of longitudinal effects (Silinskas et al., 2013). Contextual specificity may limit generalizability. The complexity of interacting variables is a methodological challenge.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations for Future Research

6.1. Overall Conclusions

A “one-size-fits-all” homework approach is ineffective for elementary students. Direct academic benefits are often minimal, especially for younger grades, and depend on quality, purpose, and developmental appropriateness. Parental involvement is a key moderator, with quality of support being important. SES creates a “homework gap”. Perceptions vary and are often misaligned. The debate should focus on designing positive, equitable, and meaningful homework.

6.2. Recommendations for Educational Practice

• Educators: Prioritize quality, developmental appropriateness, differentiation, clear communication, and constructive feedback.
• Parents: Foster autonomy, provide supportive help, establish routines, and communicate with teachers.
• Policymakers: Develop flexible, evidence-based guidelines, invest in teacher professional development, and address equity.

6.3. Identification of Gaps in the Current Literature and Suggestions for Future Research

• Longitudinal Studies: Track long-term effects on study habits, self-regulation, achievement, and attitudes.
• Diverse Learners: Investigate strategies for students with SEND, English Language Learners, and diverse backgrounds.
• Digital Homework: Research the impact of digital tools, access, equity, and unique challenges/benefits (Mzidabi et al., 2024).
• Teacher Professional Development: Evaluate programs on homework design, feedback, and family communication.
• Parental Support Interventions: Research effective interventions for autonomy-supportive help, especially for low-SES parents.
• Student Voice: Incorporate student perspectives in homework design and evaluation (Akhtar et al., 2024).
• Comparative Policy Studies: Examine outcomes of different school/district homework policies.
• Optimal Homework Characteristics: Further research on optimal frequency, duration, and types by subject and age.
• Causal Mechanisms: Employ stronger causal designs to establish the relationship between homework characteristics and outcomes.

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